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Emperor Trajan (Marcus Ulpius Nerva Trajanus), a Roman ruler from the Antonine dynasty (Antonini), reigned from 98 to 117 AD. He gained fame through his numerous conquests.
During the reign of Emperor Trajan, the territory of the Roman Empire expanded to its maximum extent. No one after him was able to achieve as many conquests. This ruler is considered one of the five good emperors under whom the country experienced economic stability and the absence of repression.
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Biography of Trajan
The renowned Roman emperor was born on September 18, 53 AD, in Italica, located in the province of Baetica. The city was situated approximately 9 kilometers northwest of modern-day Seville. Italica is currently part of Spain, but in earlier years, it was one of the colonies of the Roman Empire (Impero romano d’Occidente) and was founded in 206 BC. Therefore, historians associate Trajan’s family with Spanish aristocracy.
Ancestry
The territory of Italica was a subject of fierce disputes between Rome (Roma) and Carthage (Cartagine). The family of the future emperor consisted of warriors. During the Second Punic War, they were transferred to Italica, facilitated by Scipio (Scipione), who was a military commander and involved in Rome’s political affairs at that time.
The father of the future emperor, Marcus Ulpius Traianus Senior (Marco Ulpio Traiano Anziano), served as a governor in Syria (Siria). When the Saturninus revolt swept across the country in January 89 AD, Trajan’s father had at his disposal an entire legion, which he subsequently deployed to suppress the rebels.
In recognition of his significant contribution to maintaining order within the territory of the Roman Empire, he was awarded the honorary consul title in 91 AD. Shortly after, he became the commander of the forces in Upper Germany in 97 AD. In this part of the state, there was a struggle against barbarians, prompting Emperor Nerva to send Marcus Trajan to pacify the enemies. Trajan Senior successfully fulfilled this mission.
Trajan’s mother was Marcia (Marzia), the daughter of a Roman senator. In 48 AD, she gave birth to a daughter named Ulpia. In honor of his mother, the illustrious emperor founded a colony in North Africa called Colonia Marciana Ulpia Traiana Thamugadi.
Personal Qualities
Trajan had a tall stature and a strong physique. His face showed early signs of gray hair, and his expression always reflected concentration and seriousness.
Throughout his life, Trajan never neglected his duties as a military commander. His appearance always revealed him as a leader. He was strong and imposing, never abandoning his troops. He walked firmly, crossing rivers and mountains that came in his path. He did so while fully equipped, and the ancient armor of that time weighed almost as much as the warrior himself.
When Trajan learned of Licinia Sura’s evil intentions against him, he went to dine with him. He consumed whatever was served to him and even asked Sura’s personal barber to shave him.
Vanity, however, was not foreign to Trajan, but when necessary, he could easily suppress it. As historians say, throughout his life, the emperor hardly uttered any foolish words or attracted public attention through relationships with other women once he entered into marriage.
Reign Commencement
In the year 97 AD, Trajan, who at that time was a military commander in Germany, received news that Emperor Nerva had decided to adopt him. The ruler saw in Trajan all the necessary qualities required of a true emperor. However, transferring the throne by will at that time was impossible, as the heir had to be a relative of the reigning ruler. Subsequently, Trajan officially became a co-ruler with Nerva. The senator ascended to power at an advanced age and during his time on the throne, he accomplished virtually nothing.
Nerva was a weak ruler, which earned him the discontent of the guards and contributed to the development of political opposition in the Senate. The emperor’s death was anticipated, and Nerva gradually lost his influence, with some of his powers effectively being taken away.
In the year 97 AD, a rebellion of legionnaires erupted, leading to the formation of two factions in the Senate, each putting forth its candidate for future emperors. One side supported Nigrin Cornelius, who at that time served as a governor in Syria and commanded one of the most powerful armies of the Roman Empire. The other side provided assistance to Trajan. In the same year, the future emperor was appointed as the procurator of Upper Germany and Lower Moesia, aiming to restrain Cornelius’ usurpation in case of conflict. The prospective emperor already enjoyed the trust and loyalty of the senators, which became one of the key factors in his appointment.
During this time, Nerva decided to issue a decree that would contribute to the further prosperity of the empire. According to the decree, the ruling emperor had the right to independently choose his successor, taking into account the personal qualities and character traits of the heir, rather than solely based on bloodline. From that moment, the “Augustus-Caesars” system began its full operation, and according to its rules, the heir to the empire became Marcus Ulpius Nerva.
When the Praetorians approached the imperial palace on the Palatine Hill, Nerva announced that Trajan would become the future ruler of the empire. At that time, Trajan was in Cologne, and contrary to expectations, he did not immediately return to Rome. The general decided that he would not waste time on meaningless ceremonies and instead continued to focus on strengthening the borders. Only after all the work was done did Trajan travel to the capital to assume the imperial throne.
On October 25th, the emperor received proconsular and tribunician powers, and he made his arrival in the capital as grand as possible. In honor of his ascension to the high office, Trajan distributed monetary rewards to every resident of Rome.
In 98 and 99, the emperor began to strengthen the defense along the Danube River and the Black Sea. In this region, he resumed the construction of roads and fortifications. Trajan was in a hurry, and as history showed, it was not in vain. The middle course of the Danube posed a threat to the state from the Marcomanni and several other Germanic tribes.
Military Activities
During his reign, Emperor Trajan focused on reforms in the structure of the army. Additional legions were created, such as the 2nd Fearless Trajan and the 30th Victorious Ulpius in the year 105 AD. As a result of these changes, the total number of legions in the Roman Empire reached its maximum of exactly 30.
Special auxiliary forces were formed, which included trained combat camels, units consisting of Romanized Dacians, and cohorts of Nabataeans. A new guard unit of 500 soldiers was organized.
Frumentarii, initially responsible for the supply of bread, were transformed by Emperor Trajan into a reconnaissance regiment attached to the Foreign Camp. The ruler took the construction of Trajan’s Wall seriously, which contributed to the fortification of the Danube frontier.
Dacian Campaigns
The Dacian campaign occupied Emperor Trajan from the very beginning of his rule, as he aimed to eliminate the threats to the Danube frontier permanently. The preparation took a whole year, during which new fortifications, bridges, and roads were built, and the emperor sent additional troops from Germany and eastern cities.
At the beginning of 101 AD, the Roman Empire violated the previously concluded treaty of Domitian. The army split into two parts and crossed the Danube. The Western legions were under the command of Trajan himself. The enemy army consisted of 160,000 warriors, making subsequent battles extremely challenging and resulting in significant losses for the Romans. However, Decebalus’s forces encountered fierce resistance for the first time. Trajan not only bravely defended but also launched numerous attacks along the Roman banks of the Danube. The Dacian leader was forced to retreat to the mountains.
In 102 AD, the bloodiest battle of the entire Dacian campaign took place. Emperor Trajan lost about 4,000 of his legionnaires but managed to defeat the Dacians decisively. In memory of the fallen warriors, the ruler ordered the construction of a monument on which the names of the heroes were engraved.
Decebalus was left with no options and had to accept Trajan’s harsh demands. The Dacian leader surrendered all the lands occupied by the Roman Empire’s army and significantly limited his influence in Dacia. He handed over all military equipment to the Roman forces, delivered defectors, and gave his word not to recruit legionnaires anymore. Decebalus assumed the position of a vassal in relation to the Roman Empire and was now obliged to coordinate all his subsequent actions with them.
However, the triumph was premature. Decebalus refused to accept defeat and actively began preparing for a new war. It broke out in 105 AD and lasted until the following autumn. Before this, Emperor Trajan dispatched the 14 finest legions, exactly half of the Roman Empire’s army, to the Danube.
Decebalus fiercely resisted with his forces, even resorting to the burning of the capital city, Sarmizegetusa. However, in the end, his army suffered a crushing defeat. Decebalus’s head was severed and brought to Rome as a military trophy, but it was thrown into the dirt, following ancient customs.
Eastern Campaign
In the East, there were still states that posed a threat to the Empire. Trajan set himself the goal of finally resolving the Parthian issue and establishing a stronger foothold at the eastern borders, as well as regaining control over trade routes. The emperor decided to organize a new war, as he had grown tired of the routine administrative affairs in the capital. He sought to leverage the power of the Roman Empire, which was then experiencing the height of its capabilities.
The campaign began in the year 113. Within a year, Armenia submitted to him. And it continued. Trajan captured Ctesiphon and reached the shores of the Indian Ocean. History shows that Trajan was the only Roman ruler who saw it. Reports of yet another state surrendering or capitulating without a fight reached the Senate almost every week. Assyria, Mesopotamia, Arabia, and even Parthia surrendered to Trajan.
When the great emperor stood on the shores of the Red Sea, he suddenly realized that he was too old to replicate the feat of Alexander the Great. Leaving behind the strongest legionnaires in strategic locations, he made the decision to embark on the return journey.
Domestic Policy
Emperor Trajan paid equal attention to both the common people and the Senate. During his lifetime, he served as consul nine times, willingly passing on the position to his associates and friends. Under Trajan’s rule, there were approximately thirteen individuals who held the consulship three times.
The Senate began appointing individuals from the new eastern provinces. Trajan issued a decree stating that all judicial proceedings related to offenses against his dignity would be abolished. When the emperor’s friends fell ill, Trajan personally visited and congratulated them if their illness coincided with holidays. Such behavior by the emperor had its negative aspects, as many criticized him for acting like an ordinary citizen.
Once, when presenting Suburanus with a dagger, a symbol of power, Trajan said, “I give you this weapon to protect me when I make the right choice and, at the same time, to use against me if I make the wrong choice.”
Finance
In the past, Nerva laid the foundations of the alimentary monetary system aimed at supporting the impoverished segments of the population. Trajan decided to perfect it. The principle of such a system was to organize several funds through taxes and contributions, from which monthly sums were paid to the children of low-income families.
The emperor increased grain supplies to Rome, obligating each senator to contribute one-third of their income to this cause. Bankrupt landowners were granted the right to sell their property at a high price and acquire land in new provinces at a low cost.
Construction
The construction that took place during Trajan’s reign can hardly be called anything but extensive. The funds acquired through conquests provided the Roman Empire with the opportunity to improve its position in this field. A colossal column, adorning the capital, was adorned with reliefs depicting the major events of the Dacian Wars.
The main constructions during Trajan’s rule are:
- The harbor at Centumcellae, which is now the port of Civitavecchia.
- The Danube Road.
- A transportation artery from the Black Sea to the Euphrates.
- The opening of a canal from the Nile to the Red Sea.
Religion
From the perspective of Roman law, Christian communities were associations of individual persons bound together by common beliefs and professions. The activities of such collegia were strictly controlled by the authorities of the Roman Empire, and obtaining the appropriate permission was necessary for their operation.
There is a legend that according to which Pope Gregory the Great passed by the magnificent column, and a sudden thought came to his mind that Trajan was suffering in the afterlife. Tears welled up in his eyes, but later an angel descended to him and revealed that the great emperor briefly returned to life to embrace Christianity and seek forgiveness.
Politics in the Provinces
In Spain, the homeland of Trajan, the emperor granted Roman citizenship to several inhabitants. His attention was focused on the gold mining industry, and he sent knowledgeable Illyrian pirates to develop this area. Ancient cities that were destroyed under various circumstances were rebuilt thanks to Trajan’s efforts.
In the Nabataean Kingdom (Regno Nabateo), which today encompasses the territories of Jordan, Israel, Syria, and Saudi Arabia, also annexed to the Roman Empire, Trajan initiated intensive Romanization. Roads were restored and sturdy fortifications were created in this region.
The first procurator appointed was Guy Claudio Del Nord, who was responsible for building highways connecting the Red Sea and Syria. Simultaneously, an organized system was established with the aim of monitoring passing caravans. In the small town of Bosra, Trajan stationed a legion tasked with defending the new lands against nomadic incursions.
Rebellions
Trajan made the main mistake of a conqueror – he did not consolidate his power in the conquered territories. He moved too fast and went too far – such a vast territory is difficult to control fully. Trajan received news that the Parthian ruler had reclaimed the central part of Mesopotamia, and some provinces, such as Judea, Egypt, and Cyrene, had risen in rebellion. Many newly established colonies were dissatisfied with the conquests of the Roman emperor.
Trajan, it seems, rushed back, intending to suppress the uprisings, but old age and fatigue from the long campaign took their toll. The emperor developed dropsy, followed by a stroke and paralysis. Sensing his imminent death, Trajan entrusted Marcius Turbon with finishing what was started and suppressing the rebellion in Mesopotamia.
The Death of the Great Emperor
The hopelessly ill Trajan was brought to the coast of Cilicia, present-day southeastern Turkey, from where he was supposed to be transported to Rome. At the same time, the Senate was preparing to welcome the emperor with honors, planning a triumphant reception for him.
In the year 117, the great emperor passed away before reaching Rome. He died on the journey, in the city of Selinus, now known as Selinunt, located 45 km from Alanya in Turkey. The site consists of ruins, but there is a cenotaph dedicated to Emperor Trajan.
Trajan was 64 years old and had ruled the Roman Empire for 19 years. The ashes of the emperor were promptly transported to the capital and placed beneath a grand column, which became Trajan’s tomb, alongside his wife Pompeia Plotina.
Currently, the column is situated in Rome, at the Forum of Trajan, and is open for viewing to all tourists.
- I recommend reading about the columns in Rome.
Personal Life and Family of Emperor Trajan
When Trajan’s father passed away, he had no male relatives left. The ruler was surrounded by female company, and his only male relative turned out to be his second cousin once removed, Hadrian. The emperor had a close relationship with Hadrian’s wife and numerous female relatives, all of whom played significant roles in the country’s social life.
Trajan chose Pompeia Plotina as his wife, who also had family ties to him. Pompeia remained loyal to her husband even after his death and regularly visited his tomb to maintain its upkeep.
In the year 105 AD, she and her sister Ulpia Mariana were bestowed with the title of Augusta. Within the year, Ulpia passed away, and the decision was made to deify her. Mariana’s daughter, Matidia, was left behind and later inherited her mother’s title.
Trajan adopted his second cousin once removed, Hadrian, who would become the next emperor.
Interesting Facts
Facts from the life of Emperor Trajan continue to attract the attention of historians and biographers. Though there are few remaining interesting details about the ruler’s life, they are worth noting.
- Trajan corresponded with Pliny the Younger, a prominent figure in politics and literature. Through their letters, it was revealed that Trajan held a tolerant attitude towards Christians, contrary to his predecessors.
- He implemented a policy of refusing anonymous accusations against potential heretics and abolished punishments for those who peacefully renounced their faith. This demonstrated a more just and compassionate approach to religious matters.
- Trajan was highly regarded by the common people, who saw him as a magnanimous and understanding ruler. Once, during a military campaign, he halted his army to attend to a distraught mother who pleaded for her son’s innocence. Trajan personally intervened, ensuring a fair trial and acquittal before resuming his military duties.
- The emperor’s relationship with the Senate was noteworthy. Candidates vying for political office often inscribed witty or scathing remarks on their voting tablets, causing Trajan some concern. This aspect highlights that, despite the honorability of the senatorial position, it did not always carry significant weight during his reign.
- Trajan is renowned for his extensive building projects, including the construction of Trajan’s Forum, a magnificent complex in Rome. Completed in 112 AD, it consisted of a grand basilica, a massive column commemorating Trajan’s victories, and various other structures. The Forum showcased Trajan’s commitment to urban development and left a lasting architectural legacy in the city.
Emperor Trajan Quotes
Emperor Trajan was renowned during his lifetime for his wisdom and oratorical skills, which is why some of his statements remain relevant to this day:
- “It is better to leave a criminal unpunished than to condemn an innocent person.”
- “An anonymous accusation against someone for a crime should be ignored, as it would set a bad example.”